1787年憲法

1787年憲法

《1787憲法》是美國1787年制定並於1789年批准生效的美利堅合眾國聯邦憲法,也是世界上第一部比較完整的資產階級成文憲法。它奠定了美國政治制度的法律基礎,制定後多年來附有27條修正案,迄今繼續生效。1787年憲法強調加強國家權利,又在權利結構中突出“分權與制衡”的原則,以避免權力過於集中,體現了一定的民主精神。其內容是:立法、司法與行政權三權分立。分權制衡的核心精神在於權力平衡。其學說來自洛克和孟德斯鳩等人,美國人把思想、理論轉變為行動、實踐。政府結構必須能使各部門之間有適當的控制和平衡。使權力為公眾福利和正義目的有效行使其管理職能,同時又保持對權力的優良控制,實現公共權力與公民權利的平衡,管理與控權的動態平衡,是分權和制約的歸宿。通過分權、制約最終達到平衡,是憲政的最終目標。

基本介紹

  • 中文名:1787憲法,也稱美國憲法
  • 外文名:Constitution of the United States或U.S. Constitution
  • 影響:奠定了美國政治制度的法律基礎
  • 背景:獨立戰爭的勝利
  • 簽署地點:美國費城
歷史意義,歷程,背景,制定,修正草案,英文原文,主要內容,序言,第一條,第二條,第三條,第四條,第五條,第六條,第七條,憲法修正案,憲法解釋,特點,評價,進步性,兩面性,意義,積極,消極,實用主義精神,

歷史意義

1787年憲法不僅對美國的政治和經濟的發展有促進作用,而且對當今世界其他很多國家的民主與法制建設都有借鑑意義。

歷程

背景

美國獨立戰爭後,建立起來邦聯制的國家,政治上的鬆散狀態無法形成強有力的中央政府來穩定統治秩序,保護國家的利益與主權。
1787年憲法第一頁1787年憲法第一頁
面臨既要加強中央集權,又要確保共和制的新問題。
1786年的謝司起義,使聯邦制的統治者迫切要求強化資產階級權利,完善資產階級統治制度。

制定

1777年大陸會議制定的並於1781年批准施行的《邦聯條例》規定,由當時13個獨立州組成邦聯制國家。邦聯政府的許可權很小,不能有效地行使國家職權。鑒此,邦聯國會於1787年2月邀請各州代表到費城召開制憲會議,修改《邦聯條例》。
5月召開會議,出席的有12個州(羅得島州除外)的55名代表,G.華盛頓任主席。主張廢除《邦聯條例》、重新制定新憲法的代表占優勢,使這次會議成了全國制憲會議。出席會議的大都是資產階級和種植園奴隸主的代表,由於利益不同,大州與小州之間又存在著矛盾。
經過長時間的秘密討論,直至1787年9月17日才通過新的憲法草案,交由各州批准。全國圍繞新憲法的批准問題展開廣泛的激烈討論。1789年3月4日召開的美國第1屆聯邦國會宣布《美利堅合眾國憲法》正式生效。

修正草案

1787年制定的憲法沒有把獨立宣言和當時許多州憲法中所列舉的民主權利包括在內,沒有提及言論、出版、信仰及其他公民自由。因此遭到廣大人民民眾的普遍反對。麻薩諸塞州維吉尼亞和紐約等5個州在批准憲法時就曾強調必須修正。以後在廣大人民民眾和一部分資產階級民主派的強烈要求和法國資產階級革命的影響下,經J.麥迪遜等人的倡導,提出12條修正案。
1789年9月25日國會通過10條修正案,交由各州批准。從1791年12月15日這些修正案得到批准起,開始生效。這10條修正案通稱《人權法案》。主要內容是宣布人民有言論、出版、集會和宗教信仰等自由,規定非依法律不得扣押人、捕人、搜查及沒收財產以及刑事訴訟案中的被告有權要求迅速公審和律師辯護等等。
(注:在當時的情況下,附有《人權法案》的10條修正案的1787年美國憲法,確認了民主共和、三權分立與人民的權利自由等制度和原則,具有重大的歷史意義。它對歐洲、亞洲及拉丁美洲的憲法和資產階級民主革命,都有重要的影響.)
需要指出的是,世界大國中,唯有美國的憲政秩序最為完整,英國政治體制確立的也很早,但是因為沒有剛性憲法,而只是一些憲法性的法律檔案,所以真正最有生命力的就是這部條文並不複雜,也沒有面面俱到的美國1787憲法。兩百多年以來,美國的這部憲法歷經風雨,共有27項修正案,而我們國家的1982年憲法卻已經有31項修正案了。依法治國的基本方略如果沒有一部具有前瞻性,統領性的穩定憲法,其前景是非常堪憂的。事實上儘管美國200年來的風風雨雨不斷,但是卻總是能夠從憲法中找尋強大的民族凝聚力,兩次世界大戰,各種經濟危機,種族矛盾以及地域發展問題都被自由民主博愛的憲法精神所攻堅克難。1787憲法早已成為憲法中的聖經,並將繼續發揮巨大作用。

英文原文

THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
March 4, 1789
Preamble
We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.
Article I
Section 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.
Section 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several states, and the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature.
No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state in which he shall be chosen.
Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states which may be included within this union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. The actual Enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the state of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three.
When vacancies happen in the Representation from any state, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies.
The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment.
Section 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote.Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year, and the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any state, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies.
No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state for which he shall be chosen.
The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided.
The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States.
The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: And no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two thirds of the members present.
Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust or profit under the United States: but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment and punishment, according to law.
Section 4. The times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing Senators.
The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day.Section 5. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties as each House may provide.
Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two thirds, expel a member.
Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either House on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those present, be entered on the journal.
Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting.
Section 6. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other place.
No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time; and no person holding any office under the United States, shall be a member of either House during his continuance in office.
Section 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other Bills.
Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each House respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law.
Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill.
Section 8. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States;
To borrow money on the credit of the United States;
To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with the Indian tribes;
To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States;
To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures;
To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States;
To establish post offices and post roads;
To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries;
To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court;
To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations;
To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water;
To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years;
To provide and maintain a navy;
To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces;
To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions;
To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress;
To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings;
To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof.
Section 9. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the states now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person.
The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it.
No bill of attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed.
No capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken.
No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state.
No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one state over those of another: nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one state, be obliged to enter, clear or pay duties in another.
No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account of receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time.
No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States: and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state.
Section 10. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility.
No state shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing it s inspection laws: and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any state on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress.
No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another state, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay.
Article II
Section 1. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same term, be elected, as follows:
Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector.
The electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each; which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately choose by ballot one of them for President; and if no person have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said House shall in like manner choose the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each state having one vote; A quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the President, the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by ballot the Vice President.
The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes; which day shall be the same throughout the United States.
No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United States, at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty five years, and been fourteen Years a resident within the United States.
In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation or inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected.
The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services, a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of them.
Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following oath or affirmation:--"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States."
Section 2. The President shall be commander in chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several states, when called into the actual service of the United States; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment.
He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law: but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments.
The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall expire at the end of their next session.
Section 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress information of the state of the union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States.
Section 4. The President, Vice President and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.
Article III
Section 1. The judicial power of the United States, shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behaviour, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services, a compensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office.
Section 2. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority;--to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls;--to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction;--to controversies to which the United States shall be a party;--to controversies between two or more states;--between a state and citizens of another state;--between citizens of different states;--between citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different states, and between a state, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens or subjects.
In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a state shall be party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress shall make.
The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; and such trial shall be held in the state where the said crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any state, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed.
Section 3. Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court.
The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture except during the life of the person attainted.
Article IV
Section 1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state. And the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof.
Section 2. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several states.
A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another state, shall on demand of the executive authority of the state from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the state having jurisdiction of the crime.
No person held to service or labor in one state, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due.
Section 3. New states may be admitted by the Congress into this union; but no new states shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other state; nor any state be formed by the junction of two or more states, or parts of states, without the consent of the legislatures of the states concerned as well as of the Congress.
The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular state.
Section 4. The United States shall guarantee to every state in this union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion; and on application of the legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature cannot be convened) against domestic violence.
Article V
The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the legislatures of two thirds of the several states, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the several states, or by conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress; provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article; and that no state, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate.
Article VI
All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation.
This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every state shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding.
The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several state legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several states, shall be bound by oath or affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States.
Article VII
The ratification of the conventions of nine states, shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the states so ratifying the same.
Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the states present the seventeenth day of September in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty seven and of the independence of the United States of America the twelfth.In witness whereof We have hereunto subscribed our Names,
G. Washington-Presidt. and deputy from Virginia
New Hampshire: John Langdon, Nicholas Gilman
Massachusetts: Nathaniel Gorham, Rufus King
Connecticut: Wm: Saml. Johnson, Roger Sherman
New York: Alexander Hamilton
New Jersey: Wil: Livingston, David Brearly, Wm. Paterson, Jona: Dayton
Pennsylvania: B. Franklin, Thomas Mifflin, Robt. Morris, Geo. Clymer, Thos. FitzSimons, Jared Ingersoll, James Wilson, Gouv Morris
Delaware: Geo: Read, Gunning Bedford jun, John Dickinson, Richard Bassett, Jaco: Broom
Maryland: James McHenry, Dan of St Thos. Jenifer, Danl Carroll
Virginia: John Blair, James Madison Jr.
North Carolina: Wm. Blount, Richd. Dobbs Spaight, Hu Williamson
South Carolina: J. Rutledge, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, Charles Pinckney, Pierce Butler
Georgia: William Few, Abr Baldwin

主要內容

由序言和七條正文組成,序言部分闡明了聯邦憲法的目的和宗旨。

序言

我們,美利堅合眾國的人民,為了組織一個更完善的聯邦、樹立正義、保障國內的安寧、建立共同的國防、增進全民福利和確保我們自己及我們後代能安享自由帶來的幸福,乃為美利堅合眾國制定和確立這一部憲法。

第一條

第一款 本憲法所規定的立法權,全屬合眾國的國會,國會由一個參議院和一個眾議院組成。
第二款 眾議院應由各州人民每兩年選舉一次之議員組成,各州選舉人應具有該州州議會中人數最多之一院的選舉人所需之資格。凡年齡未滿二十五歲,或取得合眾國公民資格未滿七年,或於某州當選而並非該州居民者,均不得任眾議員。眾議員人數及直接稅稅額,應按聯邦所轄各州的人口數目比例分配,此項人口數目的計算法,應在全體自由人民--包括訂有契約的短期僕役,但不包括末被課稅的印第安人--數目之外,再加上所有其他人口之五分之三。實際人口調查,應於合眾國國會第一次會議後三年內舉行,並於其後每十年舉行一次,其調查方法另以法律規定之。眾議員的數目,不得超過每三萬人口有眾議員一人,但每州至少應有眾議員一人;在舉行人囗調查以前,各州得按照下列數目選舉眾議員 : 新罕布夏三人、麻薩諸塞八人、羅德島及普羅維登斯墾殖區一人、康乃狄克五人、紐約州六人.新澤西四人、賓夕法尼亞八人、德拉瓦一人、馬里蘭六人、維吉尼亞十人、北卡羅來納五人、南卡羅來納五人、喬治亞三人。任何一州的眾議員有缺額時,該州的行政長官應頒選舉令,選出眾議員以補充缺額。眾議院應選舉該除議長及其他官員;只有眾議院具有提出彈劾案的權力。
第三款 合眾國的參議院由每州的州議會選舉兩名參議員組成之,參議員的任期為六年,每名參議員有一票表決權。參議員於第一次選舉後舉行會議之時,應當立即儘量均等地分成三組。第一組參議員的任期,到第二年年終時屆滿,第二組到第四年年終時屆滿,第三組到第六年年終時屆滿,俾使每兩年有三分之一的參議員改選;如果在某州州議會休會期間,有參議員因辭職或其它原因出缺,該州的行政長官得任命臨時參議員,等到州議會下次集會時,再予選舉補缺。凡年齡未滿三十歲,或取得合眾國公民資格未滿九年,或於某州當選而並非該州居民者,均不得任參議員。合眾國副總統應為參議院議長,除非在投票票數相等時,議長無投票權。參議院應選舉該院的其他官員,在副總統缺席或執行合眾國總統職務時,還應選舉臨時議長。所有彈劾案,只有參議院有權審理。在開庭審理彈劾案時,參議員們均應宣誓或誓願。如受審者為合眾國總統,則應由最高法院首席大法官擔任主席;在未得出席的參議員的三分之二的同意時,任何人不得被判有罪。彈劾案的判決,不得超過免職及取消其擔任合眾國政府任何有榮譽、有責任或有俸給的職位之資格 ;但被判處者仍須服從另據法律所作之控訴、審訊、判決及懲罰。
第四款 各州州議會應規定本州參議員及眾議員之選舉時間、地點及程式 ; 但國會得隨時以法律制定或變更此種規定,惟有選舉議員的地點不在此例。國會應至少每年集會一次,開會日期應為十二月的第一個星期一,除非他們通過法律來指定另一個日期。
第五款 參眾兩院應各自審查本院的選舉、選舉結果報告和本院議員的資格,每院議員過半數即構成可以議事的法定人數 ;不足法定人數時,可以一天推一天地延期開會,並有權依照各該議院所規定的程式和罰則,強迫缺席的議員出席。參眾兩院得各自規定本院的議事規則,處罰本院擾亂秩序的議員,並且得以三分之二的同意,開除本院的議員。參眾兩院應各自保存一份議事記錄,並經常公布,惟各該院認為應保守秘密之部分除外;兩院議員對於每一問題之贊成或反對,如有五分之一出席議員請求,則應記載於議事記錄內。在國會開會期間,任一議院未得別院同意,不得休會三日以上,亦不得遷往非兩院開會的其他地點。
第六款 參議員與眾議員得因其服務而獲報酬,報酬的多寡由法律定之,並由合眾國國庫支付。兩院議員除犯叛國罪、重罪以及擾亂治安罪外,在出席各該院會議及往返各該院途中,有不受逮捕之特權;兩院議員在議院內所發表之演說及辯論,在其它場合不受質詢。參議員或眾議員不得在其當選任期內擔任合眾國政府任何新添設的職位,或在其任期內支取因新職位而增添的俸給;在合眾國政府供職的人,不得在其任職期間擔任國會議員。
第七款 有關徵稅的所有法案應在眾議院中提出 ; 但參議院得以處理其它法案的方式,以修正案提出建議或表示同意。經眾議院和參議院通過的法案,在正式成為法律之前,須呈送合眾國總統;總統如批准,便須簽署,如不批准,即應連同他的異議把它退還給原來提出該案的議院,該議院應將異議詳細記入議事記錄,然後進行複議。倘若在複議之後,該議院議員的三分之二仍然同意通過該法案,該院即應將該法案連同異議書送交另一院,由其同樣予以複議,若此另一院亦以三分之二的多數通過,該法案即成為法律。但遇有這樣的情形時,兩院的表決均應以贊同或反對來定,而贊同和反對該法案的議員的姓名,均應由兩院分別記載於各該院的議事記錄之內。如總統接到法案後十日之內 (星期日除外) ,不將之退還,該法案即等於曾由總統簽署一樣,成為法律¨準有當國會休會因而無法將該法案退還時,該法案才不得成為法律。任何命令、決議或表決 (有關休會問題者除外) ,凡須由參議院及眾議院予以同意者,均應呈送合眾國總統; 經其此準之後,方始生效,如總統不予批准,則參眾兩院可依照對於通過法案所規定的各種規則和限制,各以三分之二的多數,再行通過。
第八款 國會有權規定並徵收稅金、捐稅、關稅和其它賦稅,用以償付國債並為合眾國的共同防禦和全民福利提供經費 ;但是各種捐稅、關稅和其它賦稅,在合眾國內應劃一徵收 ;以合眾國的信用舉債;管理與外國的、州與州間的,以及對印第安部落的貿易;制定在合眾國內一致適用的歸化條例,和有關破產的一致適用的法律 ;鑄造貨幣,調議其價值,並厘定外幣價值,以及制定度量衡的標準;制定對偽造合眾國證券和貨幣的懲罰條例;設立郵政局及延造驛路 ;為促進科學和實用技藝的進步,對作家和發明家的著作和發明,在一定期限內給予專利權的保障 ;設定最高法院以下的各級法院;界定並懲罰海盜罪、在公海所犯的重罪和違背國際公法的罪行;宣戰,對民用船苹頒發捕押敵船及採取報復行動的特許證,制定在陸地和海面虜獲戰利晶的規則;募集和維持陸軍,但每次撥充該項費用的款項,其有效期不得超過兩年;配備和保持海軍;制定有開管理和控制陸海軍隊的各種條例 ;制定召集民兵的條例,以便執行聯邦法律,鎮壓叛亂和擊退侵略;規定民兵的組織、裝備和訓練,以及民兵為合眾國服務時的管理辦法,但各州保留其軍官任命權,和依照國會規定的條例訓練其民團的權力;對於由某州讓與而由國會承受,用以充當合眾國政府所在地的地區 (不逾十哩見方) ,握有對其一切事務的全部立法權 ; 對於經州議會同意,向州政府購得,用以建築要塞、彈藥庫、兵工廠、船塢和其它必要建築物的地方,也握有同樣的權力;--並且為了行使上述各項權力,以及行使本憲法賦予合眾國政府或其各部門或其官員的種種權力,制定一切必要的和適當的法律。
第九款 對於現有任何一州所認為的應準其移民或入境的人,在一八O八年以前,國會不得加以禁止,但可以對入境者課稅,惟以每人不超過十美元為限。不得中止人身保護令所保障的特權,惟在叛亂或受到侵犯的情況下,出於公共安全的必要時不在此限。不得通過任何褫奪公權的法案或者追溯既往的法律。除非按本憲法所規定的人口調查或統計之比例,不得徵收任何人口稅或其它直接稅。對各州輸出之貨物,不得課稅。任何有關商務或納稅的條例,均不得賦予某一州的港口以優惠待遇;亦不得強迫任何開往或來自某一州的船苹,駛入或駛出另一州,或向另一州納稅。除了依照法律的規定撥款之外,不得自國庫中提出任何款項 ; 一切公款收支的報告和帳目,應經常公布。合眾國不得頒發任何貴族爵位: 凡是在合眾國政府擔任有俸給或有責任之職務者,末經國會許可,不得接受任何國王、王子或外國的任何禮物、薪酬、職務或爵位。
第十款 各州不得締結任何條約、結盟或組織邦聯;不得對民用船苹頒發捕押敵船及採取報復行動之特許證 ;不得鑄造貨幣 ;不得發行紙幣;不得指定金銀幣以外的物品作為償還債務的法定貨幣;不得通過任何褫奪公權的法案、追溯既往的法律和損害契約義務的法律;也不得頒發任何貴族爵位。未經國會同意,各州不得對進口貨物或出口貨物徵收任何稅款,但為了執行該州的檢查法律而有絕對的必要時,不在此限;任何州對於進出囗貨物所征的稅,其淨收益應歸合眾國國庫使用; 所有這一類的檢查法律,國會對之有修正和監督之權。未經國會同意,各州不得徵收船舶噸位稅,不得在和平時期保持軍隊和軍艦,不得和另外一州或國締結任何協定或契約,除非實際遭受入侵,或者遇到刻不容緩的危急情形時,不得從事戰爭。

第二條

第一款 行政權力賦予美利堅合眾國總統。總統任期四年,總統和具有同樣任期的副總統,應照下列手續選舉 :每州應依照該州州議會所規定之手續,指定選舉人若干名,其人數應與該州在國會之參議員及眾議員之總數相等;但參議員、眾議員及任何在合眾國政府擔任有責任及有俸給之職務的人,均不得被指定為選舉人。各選舉人應於其本身所屬的州內集會,每人投票選舉二人,其中至少應有一人不屬本州居民。選舉人應開列全體被選人名單,註明每人所得票數;他們還應簽名作證明,並將封印後的名單送至合眾國政府所在地交與參議院議長。參議院議長應於參眾兩院全體議員之前,開拆所有來件,然後計算票數。得票最多者,如其所得票數超過全體選舉人的半數,即當選為總統;如同時不止一人得票過半數,旦又得同等票數,則眾議院應立即投票表決,選畢其中一人為總統 ; 如無人得票過半數,則眾議院應自得票最多之前五名中用同樣方法選舉總統。但依此法選舉總統時,應以州為單位,每州之代表共有一票;如全國三分之二的州各有一名或多名眾議員出席,即構成選舉總統的法定人數 ; 當選總統者需獲全部州的過半數票。在每次這樣的選舉中,於總統選出後,其獲得選舉人所投票數最多者,即為副總統。但如有二人或二人以上得票相等時,則應由參議院投票表決,選學其中一人為副總統。國會得決定各州選出選舉人的時期以及他們投票的日子;投票日期全國一律。只有出生時為合眾國公民,或在本憲法實施時已為合眾國公民者,可被選為總統 ; 凡年齡未滿三十五歲,或居住合眾國境內未滿十四年者,不得被選為總統。如遇總統被免職,或因死亡、辭職或喪失能力而不能執行其權力及職務時,總統職權應由副總統執行之。國會得以法律規定,在總統及副總統均被免職,或死亡、辭職或喪失能力時,由何人代理總統職務,該人應即遵此視事,至總統能力恢復,或新總統被選出時為止。總統得因其服務而在規定的時間內接受俸給,在其任期之內,俸金數額不得增加或減低,他亦不得在此任期內,自合眾國政府和任何州政府接受其它報酬。在他就職之前,他應宣誓或誓願如下: --「我鄭重宣誓(或矢言) 我必忠誠地執行合眾國總統的職務,並盡我最大的能力,維持、保護和捍衛合眾國憲法。
第二款 總統為合眾國陸海軍的總司令,並在各州民團奉召為合眾國執行任務的擔任統帥 ; 他可以要求每個行政部門的主管官員提出有關他們職務的任何事件的書面意見 ,除了彈劫案之外,他有權對於違犯合眾國法律者頒賜緩刑和特赦。總統有權締訂條約,但須爭取參議院的意見和同意,並須出席的參議員中三分之二的人贊成;他有權提名,並於取得參議院的意見和同意後,任命大使、公使及領事、最高法院的法官,以及一切其他在本憲法中未經明定、但以後將依法律的規定而設定之合眾國官員 ;國會可以制定法律,酌情把這些較低級官員的任命權,授予總統本人,授予法院,或授予各行政部門的首長。在參議院休會期間,如遇有職位出缺,總統有權任命官員補充缺額,任期於參議院下屆會議結束時終結。
第三款 總統應經常向國會報告聯邦的情況,並向國會提出他認為必要和適當的措施,供其考慮 ; 在特殊情況下,他得召集兩院或其中一院開會,並得於兩院對於休會時間意見不一致時,命令兩院休會到他認為適當的時期為止;他應接見大使和公使 ;他應注意使法律切實執行,並任命所有合眾國的軍官。
第四款 合眾國總統、副總統及其他所有文官,因叛國、賄賂或其它重罪和輕罪,被彈劾而判罪者,均應免職。

第三條

第一款 合眾國的司法權屬於一個最高法院以及由國會隨時下令設立的低級法院。最高法院和低級法院的法官,如果盡忠職守,應繼續任職,並按期接受俸給作為其服務之報酬,在其繼續任職期間,該項俸給不得削減。
第二款 司法權適用的範圍,應包括在本憲法、合眾國法律、和合眾國已訂的及將訂的條約之下發生的一切涉及普通法及衡平法的案件 ;一切有關大使、公使及領事的案件 ;一切有關海上裁判權及海事裁判權的案件;合眾國為當事一方的訴訟; 州與州之間的訴訟,州與另一州的公民之間的訴訟,一州公民與另一州公民之間的訴訟,同州公民之間為不同之州所讓與之土地而爭執的訴訟,以及一州或其公民與外國政府、公民或其屬民之間的訴訟。在一切有關大使、公使、領事以及州為當事一方的案件中,最高法院有最初審理權。在上述所有其它案件中,最高法院有關於法律和事實的受理抗訴權,但由國會規定為例外及另有處理條例者,不在此限。對一切罪行的審判,除了彈劫案以外,均應由陪審團裁定,並且該審判應在罪案發生的州內舉行;但如罪案發生地點並不在任何一州之內,該項審判應在國會按法律指定之地點或幾個地點學行。
第三款 只有對合眾國發動戰爭,或投向它的敵人,予敵人以協助及方便者,方構成叛國罪。無論何人,如非經由兩個證人證明他的公然的叛國行為,或經由本人在公開法庭認罪者,均不得被判叛國罪。國會有權宣布對於叛國罪的懲處,但因叛國罪而被褫奪公權者,其後人之繼承權不受影響,叛國者之財產亦只能在其本人生存期間被沒收。

第四條

第一款 各州對其它各州的公共法案、記錄、和司法程式,應給予完全的信賴和尊重。國會得制定一般法律,用以規定這種法案、記錄、和司法程式如何證明以及具有何等效力。
第二款 每州公民應享受各州公民所有之一切特權及豁免。凡在任何一州被控犯有叛國罪、重罪或其它罪行者,逃出法外而在另一州被緝獲時,該州應即依照該罪犯所逃出之州的行政當局之請求,將該罪犯交出,以便移交至該犯罪案件有管轄權之州。凡根據一州之法律應在該州服役或服勞役者,逃往另一州時,不得因另一州之任何法律或條例,解除其服役或勞役,而應依照有權要求該項服役或勞役之當事一方的要求,把人交出。
第三款 國會得準許新州加入聯邦 ; 如無有關各州之州議會及國會之同意,不得於任何州之管轄區域內建立新州 ; 亦不得合併兩州或數州、或數州之一部分而成立新州。國會有權處置合眾國之屬地及其它產業,並制定有關這些屬地及產業的一切必要的法規和章則;本憲法中任何條文,不得作有損於合眾國或任何一州之權利的解釋。
第四款 合眾國保證聯邦中的每一州皆為共和政體,保障它們不受外來的侵略 ;並且根據各州州議會或行政部門 (當州議會不能召集時) 的請求,平定其內部的暴亂。

第五條

舉凡兩院議員各以三分之二的多數認為必要時,國會應提出對本憲法的修正案; 或者, 當現有諸州三分之二的州議會提出請求時,國會應召集修憲大會,以上兩種修正案,如經諸州四分之三的州議會或四分之三的州修憲大會批准時,即成為本憲法之一部分而發生全部效力,至於採用那一種批准方式,則由國會議決;但一八○八年以前可能制定之修正案,在任何情形下,不得影響本憲法第一條第九款之第一、第四兩項 ;任何一州,沒有它的同意,不得被剝奪它在參議院中的平等投票權。

第六條

合眾國政府於本憲法被批准之前所積欠之債務及所簽訂之條約,於本憲法通過後,具有和在邦聯政府時同等的效力。本憲法及依本憲法所制定之合眾國法律;以及合眾國已經締結及將要締結的一切條約,皆為全國之最高法律; 每個州的法官都應受其約束,任何一州憲法或法律中的任何內容與之牴觸時,均不得有違這一規定。前述之參議員及眾議員,各州州議會議員,合眾國政府及各州政府之一切行政及司法官員,均應宣誓或誓願擁護本憲法;但合眾國政府之任何職位或公職,皆不得以任何宗教標準作為任職的必要條件。

第七條

本憲法經過九個州的制憲大會批准後,即在批准本憲法的各州之間開始生效。
本憲法於公元1787年,即美利堅合眾國獨立後第12年的9月17日,經出席制憲會議的各州在會上一致同意後制定。我們謹在此簽名作證。

憲法修正案

自1787年憲法制定以來,美國共有修正案29條(第29條為修正案提案),至1995年為止,前27條修正案已經各州批准而生效。
1-10條修正案,是關於公民權利的規定。1789年第一屆國會召開,提出了關於公民基本權利的前10條修正案,又稱《人權法案》。主要內容為:國會不得制定限制公民言論、出版自由,或剝奪公民和平集會和請願的權利的法案;公民的人身、住宅、檔案和財產不受無理搜查和扣押的權利不得侵犯;無論何人不得因同一犯罪行為而兩次遭受生命或身體的處罰,不得在任何刑事案件中被迫自證其罪;不經正當法律程式,不得被剝奪生命、自由和財產。
第11-27條主要涉及蓄奴制度的廢除,選舉制度的改革,正當法律程式和法律的平等保護以及種族平等、男女平權等問題。
憲法修正案是美國憲法的重要組成部分,代表了美國憲法制度的基本發展方向。

憲法解釋

美國的憲法實踐表明,聯邦最高法院的司法解釋是修改和完善憲法的重要途徑。
聯邦最高法院對憲法的解釋權是通過1803年的“馬伯里訴麥迪遜案”確立的。根據其確立的聯邦最高法院的司法審查權,最高法院在案件審理過程中就所涉及的州憲法和法律以及聯邦法律是否合憲問題進行審查,對憲法條文的含義進行解釋,這種解釋往往使憲法條文的含義得到修正、擴充或改變。

特點

1787年憲法體現了三大原則,聯邦制原則、分權與制衡原則、民主原則。
  1. 分權原則:憲法規定立法權、行政權、司法權分屬於國會、總統和法院。國會是國家立法機關,由選舉產生,有一定任期。總統享有發布行政命令的權力;聯邦法院法官實行終身制,法院審理案件時,不受總統和國會的干涉。分權原則不僅表現在聯邦政府立法行政司法三機關的權力分立上,而且表現在聯邦政府與州政府的權力分配上。
  2. 制衡原則:根據憲法規定,國會通過法律,必須得到參眾兩院的同意。兩院通過的法律,如果總統不同意,可以行使否決權,總統對國會通過的法案還有擱置否決權。總統及其政府的活動經費必須由國會通過預算法案,國會可以三分之二的多數票推翻總統的否決權。聯邦法院法官由總統取得參議院同意後才能任命,國會可彈劾法官,可通過法律來決定法院的編制,聯邦最高法院對國會通過的法律和總統發布的命令有權進行司法審查並宣布違憲而使之無效。
  3. 限權政府原則。政府職權和組織活動都由法律規定,政府必須在法律範圍內進行活動的法治原則。限權政府原則還具體表現在關於個人權利和自由的規定上,政府在行使權力的時候,必須保證個人權利和自由。

評價

進步性

1787年憲法規定美國是一個聯邦制國家,聯邦權力高於各州權力,採用行政、立法、司法三權分立,相互制衡的原則,肯定了資產階級民主共和政體。這部憲法由序言和7條正文組成。第1條包括10節,規定美國國會的組成及其職權。第2條包括4節,規定總統的職權和產生辦法。第3條包括3節,規定美國聯邦法院的組成及其職權。第4條包括4節,主要內容是規定各州的權利。第5條主要是規定憲法修正案提出和通過的程式。第6條主要是規定聯邦憲法和根據憲法制定的法律為全國最高法律,各州法官均必須遵守。第7條規定憲法經9個州批准後生效。根據這部憲法,美國成為一個擁有統一的中央政權的聯邦,以代替過去鬆散的邦聯。雖然各州仍保有相當廣泛的自主權,但新憲法使聯邦政府的權力大為加強。在當時的歷史條件下,這有利於鞏固北美獨立戰爭的成果,促進資本主義的發展。
是近代第一部成文憲法。一方面,它是美國經濟和政治生活的最高準則。另一方面,所設計的制度對世界上很多國家產生了影響。比如分權制衡制度、正當法律程式條款、違憲審查制度、總統制共和政體和聯邦制模式。

兩面性

1787年美國憲法主要包含一個簡短的序言和7條本文,概括起來,有兩方面的基本內容:
1.美國憲法確認了某些資產階級的民主原則。包括:
(1)分權與制衡原則。立法、行政、司法三權分別由國會、總統和聯邦法院行使,這三權之間分立的狀態十分明顯,同時又保持著一種互相牽制互相平衡的關係;
(2)有限政府原則。它與法治原則相聯繫,即聯邦政府的權利要受法律限制,不能超越法律規定的限度;
(3)代議政府原則,它與人民主權原則相聯繫。聯邦憲法序言中顯示出美國人民是憲法的制定者,但必須通過選派代表管理國家。
2.美國憲法顯現的某些反民主內容。包括:
(1)公開承認奴隸制,如憲法第1條第2款、第9款,分別以法律形式確認了奴隸制度的合法性,同時明確說明奴隸買賣可延續到1808年;
(2)輕率對待公民權利。憲法從特定意義上可以說是公民權利的保障書,可是獲得獨立後的美國卻沒有在憲法中規定關於公民的基本權利,制憲代表解釋說這種權利在各州法中已有規定。而實質上聯邦憲法並末確認各州法規定的關於公民基本權利的效力,即便是默認,但因各州規定不同,公民享受的權利有所差異。
局限性
(1)憲法允許奴隸制度的存在,這是它反民主的表現,而且在分配眾議院各州代表名額時,黑人人口按3/5的人口折算,這就更加降低了奴隸的地位。
(2)憲法明文規定了保留種族歧視的條款,不承認黑人、印第安人、婦女具有和白人男子相等的權利.
這部憲法以後陸續附有其他17條修正案。其中較重要的有:1865年生效的關於廢除奴隸制的第13條修正案;1920年生效的關於美國婦女享有選舉權的第19條修正案;1964年生效的關於選舉時取消人頭稅限制的第24條修正案;1971年生效的關於降低公民選舉年齡為18歲的第26條修正案,迄今這26條修正案均已成為1787年憲法的一部分正式生效。1972年國會通過的關於男女權利平等的第27條憲法修正案,在得到 3/4的多數州議會批准後,也成為美國憲法的一部分。

意義

積極

(1)1787年憲法是世界上第一部比較完整的資產階級成文憲法,奠定了美國政治制度法律基礎。首創違憲審查制度,這一制度真正賦予了憲法以根本法的地位,它將一切法律都置於憲法精神的統治之下,一切法律權利最終都起源並歸結於憲法權利。這一制度的實施,不僅對維護法制的統一、調整統治階級內部關係具有積極意義,而且創造了發展憲法、實現憲法監督和保障的獨特模式。
(2)西歐的啟蒙思想政治學說與美國實際的結合,在整個政治制度史中堪稱典範,對以後資本主義國家制度的建立起到示範作用。
(3)聯邦制賦予政府強有力的權力,有利於國家的鞏固;聯邦政府實行權力制衡,三權分立原則,有利於防止專制獨裁,保障了資產階級民主制度。
(4)地方分權與中央集權相結合,形成較為和諧統一的關係,在維護國家主權的同時,有利於地方的積極性的調動和創造性的發揮。
(5)這部憲法體現和維護了獨立戰爭的重大成果,使政府建立在民主原則的基礎上,保證美國的長期穩定。
(6)促進了資本主義經濟的發展
(7)建立了聯邦制總統共和制,開創了近代政體新形式,既確保了共和,又加強了主權。

消極

(1)承認了黑人奴隸制
(2)保留了種族歧視的烙印

實用主義精神

美國是一個實用主義的國家,很大程度上這種實用主義的精神就體現在美國憲法之中。美國憲法的起草和內容無不體現著實用主義。起草時,美國作為一個國家,只是一個鬆散的邦聯,十三個州各自為政,參加費城制憲會議的代表們立場、觀點、知識素養和利益訴求都有很大不同。所以在起草中,兩個程式特別體現實用精神。一是部分表決,即達成一項共識便記錄下來,作為整體的一部分。而不是草擬完全部法案再強行表決。每一個條款其實都是經常反覆爭論而達成的一致意見。二是不全面規定。也就是對於爭議很大的內容,儘管確有規定的必要,也暫時不規定,留待後面再對憲法補充。富蘭克林意味深長的說,從沒有一部完美到每個人都能接受的最好憲法。正因為這兩大程式性的規定,以及後來美國憲法修正案和違憲審查制的建立,使得美國憲法的生命如此之長。到今天,自由美國民主美國都需要到這部1787憲法之中找尋力量。

相關詞條

熱門詞條

聯絡我們